Temple Architecture in India

Temple architecture in India represents one of the most important aspects of Indian art, culture and religious tradition. It evolved gradually over different periods under the influence of changing dynasties, regional styles, religious beliefs and artistic practices. By the period between 600–750 A.D., temple architecture developed into two major styles: the Nagara style in North India and the Dravida style in South India. Later, in the Deccan region, a fusion of these two styles gave rise to the Vesara style.

Although temple architecture varies from region to region, the basic components of a Hindu temple generally remain the same. These include the garbhagriha or sanctum, mandapa, shikhara or vimana, and vahana. Together, these elements make the temple not only a place of worship but also a symbol of India’s spiritual, architectural and cultural heritage.

Nagara-Style Temple Architecture

• Nagara style is the major temple architecture style of North India.
• It became prominent during the Gupta period and continued to evolve under different regional kingdoms.
• Nagara temples are generally built on a stone platform with steps leading to the shrine.
• The temple plan is usually four-sided, with the garbhagriha, mandapa and shikhara as the main components.
• The most distinctive feature of this style is the curvilinear shikhara above the sanctum.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Main Features of Nagara Style

Feature	Description
Region	Popular mainly in northern India.
Plan	Usually four-sided or square in plan.
Platform	Built on a high platform called jagati, over a smaller base called pitha.
Garbhagriha	The sanctum is placed directly below the tallest tower.
Shikhara	Curvilinear tower rising above the garbhagriha.
Mandapa	Hall or porch used for worshippers and rituals.
Adhisthana	Smaller raised base above the platform, supporting the temple superstructure.
Water Tank	Generally, no water tank or reservoir is attached to the main temple structure.
Material	Temples were commonly made of stone, sandstone or brick, depending on region and period.

 

 Two Major Characteristics

A. Cruciform Ground Plan

• The Nagara temple often follows a cruciform or cross-shaped ground plan.
• The basic temple plan is square.
• It has a number of projected offsets known as rathakas on the middle of each side.
• These projections give the temple a more complex and elevated appearance.

B. Curvilinear Tower

• The tower over the sanctum is called the shikhara.
• It gradually curves inward as it rises upward.
• The top is usually crowned by an amalaka, a ribbed circular stone disk.
• This gives the temple its characteristic vertical elevation.

Types of Shikhara in Nagara Style

Type of Shikhara	Main Features
Rekha-Prasad / Latina	Square at the base and curving inward towards a point at the top. It is the most typical Nagara shikhara.
Phamsana	Broader at the base and shorter in height than Latina. Its roof rises upward in a straight slope.
Valabhi	Rectangular in plan with a vaulted roof. It is also called a wagon-vaulted roof.

 Nagara Temples during the Gupta Period

General Features

• The Gupta period marked an important stage in the development of North Indian temple architecture.
• Gupta temples were made of brick or stone.
• Stone temples were decorated with relief sculptures.
• Brick temples were decorated with carved bricks and terracotta plaques.
• In eastern India, temples were initially decorated with stucco, which was later replaced by terracotta.

Phases of Gupta Temple Development

Phase	Features	Examples
First Phase	Modest temples with a square garbhagriha and a flat-roofed small portico.	Early Gupta temples
Second Phase	Introduction of jagati and roofed pradakshina patha around the garbhagriha.	Parvati Temple, Nachna Kuthara; Shiva Temple, Bhumara
Third Phase	Development of a towering shikhara above the garbhagriha.	Deogarh Temple; Bhitargaon Temple

---

Important Gupta Period Examples

A. Deogarh Temple

• The stone temple at Deogarh is a classic example of a late Gupta temple.
• It follows the panchayatana style.
• In this style, the main shrine stands on a rectangular platform with four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners.
• Thus, there are five shrines in total.

B. Bhitargaon Temple

• The Bhitargaon temple in Uttar Pradesh is a brick temple.
• It has one of the earliest examples of the true arch in India.
• Its shikhara, based on a triratha plan, is among the earliest examples of the Nagara style.

Sub-Schools and Regional Variants under Nagara Style

A. Khajuraho / Chandela School

• The Khajuraho group of temples was built by the Chandelas between 900 CE and 1130 CE.
• These temples are free-standing, as they are not enclosed within a wall.
• The temples are built mainly of sandstone.
• The most important feature is the use of balconied windows with sloping sunshades or chhajjas.
• The temples generally follow the panchayatana plan.
• Each mandapa has its own shikhara.
• The garbhagriha is of sandhara type, without a pradakshina patha.
• The plan is often called Latin Cross.
• Khajuraho temples are famous for their rich sculptural decoration and erotic sculptures.
• Major temples include: Kandariya Mahadeva Temple ,Lakshmana Temple and Vishvanatha Temple

B. Odisha School

• Odisha emerged as an important centre of temple architecture from the 7th century CE.
• The shikhara in Odisha is called deul.
• The deul rises almost vertically and then suddenly curves inward near the top.
• The mandapa is called jagamohana.
• Odisha temples are classified into three orders:
  • Rekhapida
  • Pidhadeul
  • Khakra
• The compartments and niches are generally square.
• The exterior walls are richly carved, while the interiors are relatively plain.
• These temples usually have boundary walls.
• Important examples include:
  • Sun Temple, Konark
  • Jagannath Temple, Puri
  • Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneswar

C. Solanki / Maru-Gurjara Style

• This style developed mainly in Gujarat and western India.
• The Sun Temple at Modhera is the best example of this style.
• It was built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki dynasty in 1026 CE.
• A major feature is the presence of a large rectangular step-tank called Surya Kund in front of the temple.
• The temple has an ornamental arched gateway called torana.
• The torana leads to the sabha mandapa, which is open on all sides.
• The carving and sculptural work reflect the Gujarati woodcarving tradition.
• Materials used include: sandstone,black basalt, soft marble.
• Important example: Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Panchayatana Style

• Panchayatana means a temple plan with five shrines.
• It has one main shrine in the centre and four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners of the platform.
• This style became important in Nagara temple architecture.
• Examples include:Deogarh Temple,Khajuraho temple, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple and Lakshmana Temple

 Important Examples of Nagara Temples

Temple	Location	Importance
Deogarh Temple	Uttar Pradesh	Late Gupta temple; panchayatana style.
Bhitargaon Temple	Uttar Pradesh	Brick temple; early Nagara shikhara and true arch.
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple	Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh	Largest and typical Nagara temple of Khajuraho.
Lakshmana Temple	Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh	Panchayatana plan and rich sculptural work.
Vishvanatha Temple	Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh	Important Chandela-period Nagara temple.
Sun Temple, Konark	Odisha	Major Odisha-style Nagara temple.
Jagannath Temple	Puri, Odisha	Important Odisha temple tradition.
Lingaraj Temple	Bhubaneswar, Odisha	Classic Odisha Nagara temple.
Modhera Sun Temple	Gujarat	Best example of Solanki / Maru-Gurjara style.

 

The Nagara style represents the main tradition of temple architecture in North India. It is marked by a square plan, raised platform, curvilinear shikhara, garbhagriha, mandapa and rich sculptural decoration. From the Gupta temples of Deogarh and Bhitargaon to the regional styles of Khajuraho, Odisha and Gujarat, Nagara architecture reflects the gradual evolution of Indian temple design, religious symbolism and regional artistic excellence.

 

Temple Architecture in South India

Evolution of south Indian Temple Architecture

• Deployed for Hindu temples in Tamil Nadu from the 7th to 18th century, characterized by its pyramidal tower
• Unlike the Nagara temple, the Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
• The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopura/Gopuram
• Consists of a square-chambered sanctuary topped by a superstructure or tower (Vimana)
• Consists of an attached pillared porch or hall (Mandapa) which precedes the door leading to the nucleus cell.
• The Vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rise up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of north India.
• Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, and barrel-vault roofs at the centre.
• The tower is topped by a dome-shaped cupola and a crowning pot and finial.
• A large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed in the complex is general in south Indian temples.
• Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur.

 

Stages of Pallava Temple Architecture

Group / Stage	Main Features	Examples / Notes
Mahendravarman Group	This was the first stage of Pallava temple architecture. Temples of this phase were mainly rock-cut temples. These temples were also known as mandapas.	In Nagara style, mandapa generally means an assembly hall, but in this phase of Pallava architecture, mandapas referred to rock-cut shrines.
Narasimhavarman Group	This was the second stage. Rock-cut temples were decorated with intricate sculptures. Mandapas were divided into separate rathas.	Biggest ratha: Dharmaraja Ratha. Smallest ratha: Draupadi Ratha. The design of the Dravidian style of architecture is considered a successor of Dharmaraja Ratha.
Rajasimhavarman Group	This was the third stage. In this phase, real structural temples began to replace rock-cut temples.	Examples: Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram.
Nandivarman Group	This was the fourth stage. Temples became smaller in size. Their architectural features became closer to the later Dravidian style.	Represents the transition towards a more mature South Indian temple style.

 

Features of Dravida Style of Temple Architecture

• Vimana:
  In the Dravida style, the superstructure above the sanctum is known as the vimana. It is generally stepped in form and may have six or eight sides. At the top, it carries a rounded stone element known as the stupi.
• Shikhara:
  Unlike the curvilinear shikhara of the Nagara style, the Dravida temple has a pyramidal shikhara. It is made up of progressively smaller storeys rising one above another.
• Gopurams:
  In the later phase of Dravida architecture, temples became famous for their massive entrance gateways called gopurams. These gateways often became taller and more elaborate than the main shrine itself.
• Pillared Halls and Corridors:
  Dravida temples commonly include large pillared halls and long corridors, which were used for rituals, processions and gatherings.
• Garbhagriha:
  The garbhagriha, or inner sanctum, is usually square in shape and is placed inside a massive covered enclosure.
• Compound Wall:
  The temple complex is generally surrounded by a compound wall, giving it a well-defined sacred enclosure.
• Early Evidence:
  The earliest features of this style can be traced back to the Gupta period. These features were not limited only to the far south; they were also visible in parts of northern India, central India and the Deccan.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pallava Temples

• The Pallava dynasty ruled over parts of Andhra Pradesh and northern Tamil Nadu between the 6th and 9th centuries CE.
• The Pallavas made an important contribution to the development of Dravidian temple architecture.
• Mamallapuram, located in Tamil Nadu, was a major cultural and architectural centre of the Pallavas.
• Pallava monuments were mainly built in granite and can be classified into different types.

2. Main Types of Pallava Monuments at Mamallapuram

Type	Description
Rock-cut monolithic shrines	These were carved out of single granite boulders.
Structural temples	These were built by placing one stone over another.

3. Pancha Rathas at Mamallapuram

• The Pancha Rathas are a group of five rock-cut shrines located at the southern end of Mamallapuram.
• Four of these shrines are named after the Pandava heroes of the Mahabharata.
• Earlier, these monuments were believed to have been carved during the reign of Narasimhavarman I.
• However, some historians, including Nagaswamy, attribute the monuments of Mahabalipuram to Narasimhavarman II.
• These rathas represent an important stage in the transition from rock-cut architecture to structural temple architecture.

4. Shore Temple at Mamallapuram

• The Shore Temple was built by Narasimhavarman II.
• It is one of the earliest examples of structural temples in South India.
• The temple consists of three separate worship areas.
• It also has a circumambulatory passage around the shrine.
• The Shore Temple reflects the growing maturity of the Dravidian architectural style.

5. Kailashanatha Temple at Kanchipuram

• The Kailashanatha Temple at Kanchipuram was also built by Narasimhavarman II.
• The temple complex is enclosed within a rectangular courtyard wall.
• It consists of:
  • a main temple,
  • a separate hall,
  • a series of miniature shrines.
• The main shrine is made of sandstone.
• It has a pyramidal shikhara, which is a major feature of Dravidian architecture.
• This temple is considered a fully developed example of the Dravidian temple style.

Chola Temples

1. Background

• The Cholas continued and further developed the artistic and architectural traditions of the Pallavas and Pandyas.
• Chola temple architecture represents one of the highest achievements of South Indian temple building.
• The most important feature of Chola temples was the vimana, or tower above the sanctum.
• In the later period, the vimana was gradually overshadowed by richly decorated gopurams, or temple gateways.

2. Phases of Chola Temple Architecture

Phase	Main Features	Examples
First Phase	Early Chola temples had a square vimana, an ardha-mandapa in front, and eight subsidiary shrines known as asta-parivaralaya.	Sundaresvara Temple, Vijayalaya Temple, Colesvaram Temple, Koranganatha Temple
Second Phase	Chola architecture reached its peak under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I. Temples were decorated with rich sculptural ornamentation.	Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur
Third Phase	Additional pillared mandapas were added within temple complexes. Some mandapas were designed like rathas, or wheeled chariots, drawn by elephants and horses.	Airavatesvara Temple, Darasuram

3. Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur

• The Brihadisvara Temple was built by Rajaraja I.
• It is one of the finest examples of Chola architecture.
• The temple was constructed using large granite stones.
• Its most striking feature is its massive vimana, which rises to about 66 metres through sixteen storeys.
• The temple reflects the grandeur, technical skill and religious devotion of the Chola period.

4. Airavatesvara Temple, Darasuram

• The Airavatesvara Temple belongs to the later phase of Chola architecture.
• It is known for its highly decorated mandapas.
• Some structures are designed in the form of a ratha, or stone chariot.
• The temple shows the increasing importance of ornamentation and sculptural detail in later Chola temples.

Vesara Style of Temple Architecture

 Introduction

• The Vesara style is a mixed form of temple architecture that combines features of both Nagara and Dravida styles.
• It developed mainly in the Deccan region.
• This style evolved and matured under the influence of the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
• Vesara temples show experimentation in temple plans, towers, pillars and sculptural decoration.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Main Features of Vesara Style

Feature	Description
Vimana	In the early phase, temples had flat or slightly sloping roofs. Later, a tower-like vimana developed above the shrine.
Mandapa	A pillared mantapa was added in front of the four-walled garbhagriha.
Tower Design	Dravida-style towers were modified by reducing the height of each storey and arranging them in a decreasing order from bottom to top.
Shape of Tower	The tower became more vertical in appearance, instead of having the inclined storeys usually seen in the Nagara style.
Architectural Nature	It represents a fusion of northern and southern temple features, adapted to the Deccan region.

Western Chalukya Temples

Background

• The Western Chalukyas of Kalyani played an important role in the development of Vesara temple architecture.
• Their temples show great diversity in structure and design.
• These temples were built by piling large blocks of stone.
• The joints between different parts of the structure are usually visible.

Main Features

Feature	Description
Mandapa	The interiors of mandapas often contain richly carved ceiling panels.
Walls	Larger temples have walls decorated with vyala motifs, floral patterns and figural designs.
Pillars	Chalukyan pillars are generally square, heavy and without a base.
Sculptural Decoration	Sculptures became more important than in Gupta and post-Gupta temples.
Common Figures	Temples were decorated with mithunas, yakshinis, and river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna.

Important Examples

• Meguti Temple, Aihole
• Durga Temple, Aihole
• Lad Khan Temple, Aihole
• Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal

 Rashtrakuta Contribution

• The Rashtrakutas contributed significantly to rock-cut architecture.
• They built rock-cut shrines and temples at Ajanta, Ellora and Aurangabad.
• The Elephanta Caves are also associated with Rashtrakuta architectural contribution.

Kailasha Temple, Ellora

• The Kailasha Temple at Ellora was built during the reign of Krishna I of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• It was constructed between 757–783 CE.
• It is one of the most remarkable rock-cut temples in India.
• The temple is colossal in size and richly carved.
• It is considered the largest rock-cut monument in India.
• It marks the peak of rock-cut architecture in South Asia.

Hoysala Temples

Background

• The Hoysalas ruled over the Mysore plateau during the 12th and 13th centuries.
• Their temples represent one of the most refined phases of Vesara-style architecture.
• Hoysala temples are known for their complex plans, intricate carvings and decorative richness.

Main Features

Feature	Description
Star-shaped Plan	Hoysala temples have many projecting angles, which make the plan appear like a star. This is called a stellate plan.
Use of Soft Stone	These temples were made of soapstone, a soft stone that allowed detailed carving.
Intricate Carving	Sculptures are highly detailed, especially in jewellery, ornaments and figures of deities.
Temple Layout	Usually includes a garbhagriha, antarala, and a pillared mandapa called navaranga or gudha-mandapa.
Enclosure	Hoysala temples usually stand within an enclosed temple complex.

Important Example

• Hoysaleshvara Temple, Halebid, Karnataka
  • Built in 1150 CE.
  • Constructed in dark schist stone.
  • Dedicated to Lord Shiva.
  • Famous for detailed sculptures and rich ornamentation.

The Vesara style represents a creative fusion of Nagara and Dravida temple traditions. It developed mainly in the Deccan under the Western Chalukyas, was enriched by the Rashtrakutas, and reached a highly refined form under the Hoysalas. Its major features include modified towers, pillared mandapas, rich sculptural decoration, star-shaped plans and intricate carvings.

Differentiate between nagara, dravida and vesara style of temple architecture:

Nagara	Dravida	Vesara
Northern region	Southern region	Deccan region(Between the Vindhyas and Krishna river)
Developed regionally each region manifesting its own particular qualities	Developed dynastically	Mixture of two styles Hybrid style. It was developed both regionally and dynastically.
Ground Plan: Mostly Square shaped	Ground Plan: Mostly Square shaped	Ground Plan: increasingly complex, including start like plan
Curvilinear tower (Shikhara built over garbhagriha) gradually curving inward	Pyramidical Tower (Vimana) with several stories in receding dimension	The shape of tower was Pyramidical but height was reduced (Miniature Vimanas)
Multiple Shikharas	Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower, or located as distinct, separate small shrines beside the main temple.	Multiple shrines are present side by side
Squared hall	Squared hall	Squared hall
Sanctum Garbhagriha	Sanctum Garbhagriha	Sanctum Garbhagriha
Gopurams are absent	Gopurams are present	Gopurams may or may not be present
A water tank may or may not be present	A water tank is present at the front of temple from where water is drawn for sacred purposes	A water tank may or may not be present
Compound walls are absent	enclosed within a compound wall	Compound walls may or may not be present
Examples – Dashavatara temple (Deogarh), Vishwanatha temple(Khajuraho), Lakshman Temple (Khajuraho), Jagannath temple (Puri)	Examples – Shore temple (Mahabalipuram), Brihadiswara temple (Thanjavur), Meenakshi Temple (Madurai)	Examples – Badami temple, Durga Temple (Aihole), Virupaksh Temple (Pattadkal), Keshava Temple (Somnathpur

 

Other Schools of Temple Architecture

Apart from the major Nagara, Dravida and Vesara styles, several regional schools of temple architecture also developed in India. These schools evolved under different dynasties and reflected local traditions, materials, religious practices and artistic preferences.

1. Nayaka School

• The Nayaka School developed mainly in South India, especially under the Nayaka rulers of Madurai and Tanjore.
• It continued the major features of the Dravidian style.
• The best example of this style is the Meenakshi Temple at Madurai.
• According to tradition, Meenakshi, the daughter of a Pandyan king, married Sundareswara, a form of Lord Shiva.
• The temple was developed on a large scale with the initiative of Tirumalai Nayaka in the mid-17th century.

Main Features

• It includes all important elements of Dravidian temple architecture.
• A major additional feature is the presence of prakarnas.
• Prakarnas are huge corridors with roofed ambulatory passageways.
• Temple interiors contain rich carvings on the walls.
• A temple tank was also added as an important part of the complex.
• The temple complex became larger, more decorative and more processional in character.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Example- Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

2. Vijayanagara Style

• The Vijayanagara style developed under the Vijayanagara Empire.
• It was largely based on the Dravidian style but introduced several new architectural features.
• The style is known for grand scale, massive structures, elaborate decoration and secular architectural forms.

Main Features

• The gopurams became larger and more prominent.
• Temples were surrounded by high enclosure walls.
• Decorative elements became more elaborate.
• Sculptural motifs such as supernatural horses, prancing horses, leogryphs and mythical monsters were commonly used.
• A separate shrine was provided for the chief wife of the deity, known as Amman.
• Kalyana mandapam was added for ceremonial purposes, especially divine marriage rituals.
• Large mandapas, including thousand-pillared halls, became a major feature.
• Decorative additions can be clearly seen in the Vittalaswami Temple at Hampi.
• Vijayanagara architecture also introduced and developed secular buildings.
• Important secular structures include gateways, throne rooms and palatial buildings.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Examples

• Vittalaswami Temple, Hampi
• Lotus Mahal, Hampi
• Vijayanagara throne room and gateways

3. Hoysala Art

• Hoysala art developed in the southern region of Karnataka.
• It flourished mainly after the decline of the Cholas, when temple construction continued under the Chalukyas and Hoysalas.
• Hoysala temples are famous for their highly decorative design, complex ground plan and intricate sculptural work.
• The best example is the Chennakesava Temple at Belur.
• Another fully developed example is the Keshava Temple at Somnathpur near Mysore.

Main Features

• The ground plan is usually star-shaped or polygonal, known as the stellate plan.
• The entire temple complex is built on a raised platform called jagati.
• The star-shaped plan provides more wall surface for sculptural decoration.
• Walls and stairs often follow a zigzag pattern.
• The temples are known for extensive surface decoration and rich sculptural work.
• Pillars are wide, squat and highly distinctive.
• Multiple shrines are arranged around a central pillared hall.
• The main building material was soft soapstone, also known as chloritic schist.
• The softness of the stone allowed artists to produce fine and delicate carvings.
• The central ceiling of the main hall often contains a delicately carved pendentive.
• All chambers generally have shikharas, connected through horizontal lines and mouldings.
• Temples are decorated with beautifully carved bracket figures both inside and outside.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Examples

• Chennakesava Temple, Belur
• Keshava Temple, Somnathpur
• Hoysaleswara Temple, Halebidu

4. Pala School

• The Pala School of architecture developed mainly in the Bengal region.
• It flourished under the patronage of the Pala and Sena dynasties.
• The Palas were followers of Buddhism, while the Senas followed Hinduism.
• Therefore, the architecture of this school reflects the influence of both Buddhist and Hindu traditions.

Major Pala Contributions

• The Palas contributed significantly to Buddhist monastic and university architecture.
• Important centres included:
  • Nalanda University
  • Jagaddala University
  • Odantapuri University
  • Vikramshila University
  • Somapura Mahavihara, Bangladesh

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Major Sena Contribution

• Important example: Dhakeswari Temple, Bangladesh

Main Features

• Buildings often had a curved or sloping roof, similar to bamboo huts.
• This roof style later became famous as the Bangla roof.
• The Bangla roof was later adopted by Mughal architects.
• The principal building material was terracotta brick.
• Temples often had a tall, curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka.
• Sculpture formed an important part of the architectural design.
• Both metal and stone sculptures were major artistic components.

Example- Siddheswara Mahadeva Temple, Barakar

The other regional schools of temple architecture enriched the broader Indian temple tradition by adding distinctive local features. The Nayaka School expanded Dravidian temples through corridors and temple tanks, the Vijayanagara style introduced massive gopurams and secular buildings, the Hoysala style became famous for stellate plans and intricate soapstone carvings, while the Pala School reflected a blend of Buddhist and Hindu architectural traditions in eastern India.